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Mao Zedong is often generally credited as been the founder of contemporary China because of the various reforms he introduced which set China on a path towards development. China which was once subjected to foreign incursion and colonialism from the Japanese, British, German, Italians, Spanish, French, etc. emerged from this experience to deliberately introduce reforms and policies from 1949 which enabled it to rebuild itself and emerge as a highly industrialised country.
This essay will therefore examine China's growth, the problems and challenged it faced since 1949, as well as the steps, policies and strategies adopted by China's leaders from Mao Zedong to Xi Jinping. This rise placed China on a pedestal and on a fast pace towards development and Nation building.
China under Mao Zedong (1949 - 1976)
Mao Zedong who is often credited by many Historians as been the founder and leader of a modern China started off on a good note by setting China on a path of revolution and reforms which laid the foundation for the building of a new China. The Chinese government official assessment of Mao Zedong's reforms saw it as laudable until 1957 when his policies became hardline and repressive towards the people. However, some of Mao's remarkable achievements will be highlighted below.
Mao was believed to have introduced the one-party system in China which is still in operation today. Mao's One party was a communist one with a People's congress system which was under the leadership of the Chinese Communist party. His major political achievement was one which made China a communist and Socialist Republic. He was also able to consolidate his power, thereby turning himself to a kind of cult-hero who became the symbol and full expression of China.
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| Chairman Mao Zedong |
Mao also formed the Chinese People's liberation army which went on to defend the revolution started by Mao. This army formed by Mao went on to fight and defend North Korea in the Korean wars of the 1950s thereby establishing the Northern part of Korea as an ally state to China, while the Southern part went on to become aligned with the United States and the west. Mao also helped to defend Vietnam against American aggression during the Vietnam war.
Mao's philosophies and ideas became known as Maoism. Maoism got inspirations from Marxist, Stalinist and Leninist traditions, but Maoism was culturally tailored for the Chinese people. Maoism was a people-centered policy which was focused on a permanent and continuous revolution. Mao Zedong also set China on a socialist path that was based on people-centered reforms. He therefore helped increase the international image of China, making China establish diplomatic relations with the United States in 1972. His influence and global fame also enabled China to earn a permanent and legal seat in the United Nations Security Council.
Mao Zedong also ensured that China supported many African Countries who were newly independent and were trying to find their footing by giving out aid and financial grants to many African and Third World Countries. However, it must be noted that Mao made many errors and introduced many repressive policies. One of such was the great cultural revolution which was described as a big mistake because it led to the migration of hundreds of young educated people to the countryside of China who were forced to learn farming and rural life.
The doctrines and political organization that produced Mao’s greatest achievements which were; victory in the civil war, the creation of China’s first unified modern state, a historic transformation of urban and rural life, of which the latter led to his worst failures: industrial depression and rural famine during the Great Leap Forward and the violent destruction and stagnation of the Cultural Revolution. Mao erroneously viewed China’s problems as capitalist restoration, thereby prescribing continuing class struggle against unseen enemies as the solution, Mao therefore destroyed much of what he had built and left China backward, deeply divided and retrogressive at his demise. Thus, with Mao's death, China saw the end of an eventful era in its history.
China from 1978 to 2012
After the demise of Mao in 1976, from 1978, the Chinese economy began to open up and reform itself, leading to an average GDP growth rate of 9 percent, which led to the lifting of more than 800 million Chinese out of poverty which also led to significant improvement in education, health and other basic services. Therefore, China encountered a rapid economic growth from 1978 onwards.
In 1978, China was described as one of the poorest countries in the world, with a per capita GDP that was only one-fortieth of the U.S. level and one-tenth the Brazilian level. Since then, China's real per capita GDP has grown at an average rate exceeding 8 percent per year. As a result, China's real per capita GDP is now almost one-fifth the U.S. level and at the same level as Brazil.
From 1978 when Deng Xiaoping emerged as the leader of China, he began to institute some economic, political and social reforms in virtually all aspects of Chinese society. Most of his reforms were based on rigorous economic management, long-term planning and controlled economic growth. Deng also gave Private Enterprises in China an opportunity to determine production levels and also pursue profits for their Enterprise, giving these Private Enterprises freedom from the supervision of the Central government. Deng also ensured that China's economic and cultural ties with the West was strengthened, opening up the Chinese economy to Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Enterprises. He was responsible for restoring a form of domestic stability to China and economic growth after the failed and disastrous cultural revolution of Mao.
Deng therefore set China on a path of rapid economic growth and he also ensured that China became part and parcel of the world economy. Deng's other reforms were also in the aspect of economic freedom, he gave incentives to local farmers and enabled China to become a favourite destination for foreign investment. However, Deng still left China as a one-party state which relied on a free-market policy. This transformed China into a developing state. Deng is therefore remembered for having led China through a period of massive economic reforms. Unlike many leaders of his caliber, Deng resigned his office as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party shortly before his death so as to quell any succession dispute that will emerge after his demise. One of his most defining legacies was the fact that he set China on a path of rapid industrial growth and economic development.
Jiang Zemin: After the death of Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin emerged as the new Leader of the Chinese Communist Party, President and head of the Chinese liberation army. His ten years Presidency from 1993 to 2003 catapulted China into a modern era. During this period, he alleviated poverty, embraced and supported Chinese Entrepreneurs. He initiated a policy or doctrine of 'three represents' which cemented the link between communists and capitalists interests, which was also based on Mao Zedong thoughts and Marxist-Leninism. He also initiated massive economic reforms such as a move towards an independent central bank, painful state restructuring and the use of interest rates to combat double digit inflation. During his Presidency, China's GDP growth rate doubled by 10% and poverty was reduced, China's bilateral relations with the United States and other world economic powers was restored and China was admitted into the world Trade Organization in 2001 shortly before he was succeeded by Hu Jintao.
His "Three represents" doctrine which was incorporated into the Chinese constitution further emphasized three functions which were to; represent advanced productive forces, advanced culture and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority. Just as has been stated above, these policies were people-centred, based on Mao Zedong's thoughts, as well as Marxist-Leninist ideology. However, by the end of his presidency, China was left more unequal. He also proposed a blueprint for private-sector growth within a state directed system. The state still played an active role in directing and dictating the pace of Chinese economic growth.
Hu Jintao: Hu Jintao became the Secretary General of the Chinese Communist Party from 2002 to 2012 and Chinese President from 2003 to 2013. He was described as a silent ruler and his style of leadership was less dramatic and more ideologically driven. His policies on economic and foreign policy issues remained poorly defined. He maintained a quiet life and also avoided media attention at all cost. His rise to power was through expertise in personnel and ideological matters. His political beliefs were economically mainstream and ideologically conservative. He advocated for a reform of the Chinese economy, but was still stuck with the belief in the Communist party's monopoly of power. Throughout his political career, he played a part in the Party's anti-corruption efforts.
Jintao's reign as China's Leader was marked by a period of undefined economic and political policies, before his emergence as successor to Zemin, Jintao had embarked on several diplomatic tours and journeys to engage and dialogue with other world leaders in promoting China's official state policy as one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Therefore, Jintao's reign as presidency was uneventful due to his silent nature and attachment to a conservative party loyalty. He ruled alongside a group of Patrons who he turned to when in need of solutions to major challenges and problems confronting the nation. Therefore, during his reign, he stuck to a consensus style of leadership.
China under Xi Jinping (2012 till date)
Xi Jinping is perhaps one of China's greatest Leaders since Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, he inherited a Chinese economy that was largely industrialised and was fast ascending into an era of unprecedented growth and prosperity. He inherited a Chinese economy that was fast becoming a global superpower and economic power house. Xi Jinping task of lifting China to a whole new level of global power has come with a lot of challenges. However, unlike his predecessor Hu Jintao who was regarded as a silent ruler, Xi adopted economic policies of bold reforms and ambitious economic plans which seeks to catapult China into becoming the largest economy in the world. Xi however, has a major adversary to tackle in order to achieve these economic reforms in the United States. His policies have aimed to establish foundations for a new development path for China.
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| Chinese President Xi Jinping. |
In his eleven years in power Xi had embarked on so many ambitious projects such as the belt and road Initiative, the setting up of Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank which aims to surpass the World Bank and IMF in giving out aid and loans to countries at lower interest rates. He also established the Shangai Cooperation Organization. He was also instrumental in the formation of the BRICS alliance alongside Russia, South Africa, India, Brazil which are the predicted to be the next big economic powerhouse of the world. He also facilitated a new form of cooperation and alliances with Africa. Xi's ambitious projects aims to catapult China to a whole new level of economic prosperity that surpasses what the world has seen in the past five decades. Under Xi, China’s future development path is shaped by growing distrust between China and liberal market economies. Xi Jinping wants new kind of modernity for China by 2049, achieving key milestones and development targets by 2035. Xi Jinping is set on taking China to a higher level of development and global influence. China's economic policies under Xi had been focused on building an economy that could withstand external shocks. However, in order for China to achieve all these ambitious plans under Xi, China have a lot of catching up to do in order to surpass the United States as a world power. China under Xi see the US and the west as declining and which will open up a whole new window of opportunity for China to capitalise on it so she can attain the position of the global economic superpower.
Lessons African countries can gain from the Chinese experience
Nation building: Nations are not built in a day; Rome was not built in a day. It takes deliberate steps and efforts in building a nation. The Chinese economy has become a model for all Third World Countries, it rose from a deplorable past of poverty and impoverishment to becoming the second largest economy in the world. The Chinese Nation began its nation building journey in the post-World War II era, after a bloody and cultural revolution that saw the birth of Maoism and it has experienced a quantum leap in the 21st century, making it the largest economy in Asia and the second largest in the world. China aims for global dominance in the Xi era. China aims to become a global economic Empire. Thus, in the Xi era, China has continued treading the path of national development and intense nation building effort.
The Xi government has a long-term goal of becoming the global superpower by 2049. This goal is to be achieved through the two-100-years goal. The first 100 years was the celebration of the communist party 100 years in China, while the other 100 years was to celebrate the founding of the People’s Republic of China as a modern Nation. This will lead to the building of a modernized and prosperous China. The peak of China’s modernization is to be attained in 2049, when China will be built into a great modern socialist country in all respect.
Economic Management: During the Deng Xiaoping government, the Chinese economy began to institute social, political and economic reforms which facilitated its rise to prosperity. Successive Chinese governments fought wars against corruption and imposed strict State economic policies and measures, as well as a highly disciplined civil service. The Chinese economy was centralized, while the government also supported several small-scale Private Enterprises. In the 21st century, the Chinese economy began to assert itself globally by investing in foreign countries and Investments. The Chinese economy since the Xi era has leaned more towards state capitalism, while maintaining strict internal policies. In China, it is illegal to burn and sell the yuan or any symbol of China. The Banks in China is the only Institution empowered to handle cash and money. It is illegal to buy and sell the Chinese currency. Nigeria must pick a lesson from this by ensuring that the naira is treated well and with respect, and that the right monetary policies should be put in place and enforced.
On the issue of corruption and mismanagement of public funds, this has been a major problem that has affected Nigeria. Corruption is a prevalent practice across Nigeria. In China, the Chinese government treats corruption and mismanagement of public funds as a crime punishable by law. In the Xi era, corruption has been reduced to the minimum level and it is not tolerated. Corrupt Public Officials in China are stripped of their properties, offices and honor and they either spend 10 years in jail or a lifetime in jail depending on the level of corruption and gravity of offence.
Industrialization: From 1970 onwards, the Chinese economy began taking conscious steps towards massive industrialization. Industrial cities sprang up across all Provinces of China, and there was concentration of industrial products in different cities across China. In the Deng era, China witnessed a massive growth of Industries, and China's export increased to a new level, Chinese goods were sold globally and China pursued the policy of an open and fair market. In the 21st century, China has pursued a policy of multilateralism and high scale industrialization. In 2023, China has become one of the most industrialised Nations in the World. For Nigeria to become industrialised, it must invest in stable electricity, massive capital infrastructures and projects that will fetch revenue for the country and also reduce over-dependence on import.
Foreign Investment: China's GDP has skyrocketed from US $ 191.1 billion in 1980, to US$ 360.9 billion in 1990 and US $ 17.7 trillion by 2023. one major reason has accounted for this growth, which is China's massive Investment in many Countries across the world. The Chinese government has made a lot of revenue from these investments, leading to successive growth in the Chinese economy from the 1980s till date. These foreign investments which cost a toll on Chinese capital has paid off in many ways. Coupled with this, the Xi government has launched the Belt and road Initiative which is to become one of the biggest free trade zones in the world. The Belt and road initiative was an offshoot of the "Bringing In" and "Go Global" strategies in which many Chinese companies went out of their cities to other countries across the world to invest in technology, building and construction, infrastructure and expertise. Foreign Direct Investment can be accounted to be the reason for the prosperity of Nations.
Political Reforms: The Chinese government has also put in place certain political measures to ensure smooth administration of the country. Some of these political reforms include streamlining of the bureaucracy in the country's civil service, as well as granting of rights and privileges to local government to make laws and reforms at the local level. This has brought government closer to the people. The Chinese government from the 1980s have been able to maintain internal political stability within its territory which has enabled it to focus on economic growth and national development.
Education Projects: The Chinese government from 1978 began investing heavily in education and the proliferation of schools, colleges and universities across the Country. Foremost among this was the Project 211 and Project 985 plans which aimed at constructing 100 institutions of higher learning and a number of key disciplines in the 21st century. All these investment in education is to effectively promote the overall level of knowledge, information and education in the country. Due to this investment in education, the literacy rate has risen higher.
Infrastructure Development: One important lesson which Nigeria can learn from China is massive investment in infrastructures such as electricity, good roads, health facilities, railways, schools, universities, research centres, etc. The Chinese government also provides the basic infrastructure such as natural gas which is readily available to every citizen. Investment in infrastructures have enabled the Chinese economy to maintain stable growth. The Chinese government have also invested in road networks which has linked several cities and provinces across the country, this has facilitated interconnectedness and inter-regional trade. Transportation from one part of China to another is very cheap and convenient. Train stations are in every Provinces and Cities, while there are airports in every major city.
From the above, it can be seen that China's journey to global prosperity has been a long and tumultuous one of reforms, intense discipline, national development plans, infrastructural development, foreign investment, etc. Nigeria can learn many lessons from the Chinese experience. Nigeria can imitate China in adopting people-centred reforms and policies that will be for the welfare of its citizens. The Nigeria government must also put concerted efforts in confronting some of the recurrent post-independent challenges that has plagued it such as corruption, disunity, disharmony, political instability, insecurity, etc. Nigeria must invest its oil revenue in several local and foreign investments that will boost its economic growth. The Chinese example can be a model not only for Nigeria, but also for other Third World and Developing Countries in the Global South.
Having highlighted the economic growth experience and nation building efforts of China from the time of its emergence as a modern and sovereign state, this study also examined the path that China has taken since the time of Mao in confronting the major developmental challenges that has confronted it. China's rise since the time of the Mao revolution to Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms and Xi's ambitious plans for the next 15 years, has shown the efforts, strategies and policies put in place by China in confronting the key problems that it has encountered on the path to the building of the Chinese Nation. However, this Nation building process is not yet complete, as China aims to attain a global ascendancy surpassing the United States and breaking free from a western oriented global economy.
Therefore, the Chinese growth model is an example for all countries in Africa and the Third World. The Chinese miracle is one of the defining growth stories of the 20th and 21st century. China which once belonged to the category of the Global periphery is right on course towards becoming the global economic giant. This is a lesson worth noting that Nations can be built over a long term when citizens take conscious steps towards achieving and pursuing a common national goal, vision and aspiration.
References
- Anthony H Cordesman. 2023. China's Emergence as a Superpower. Centre For Strategic and International Studies. <https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-emergence-superpower#:~:text=China%20has%20emerged%20as%20an,technology%20and%20research%20and%20development>
- The World Bank in China. 2023. A World Bank Report on China's economic growth from 1978 to the early 2000s. <https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview>
- Deng Xiaoping. Article published on Britannica. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Deng-Xiaoping>
- Foley John. 2022. Jiang Zemin made China richer and more unequal. Article on Reuters news Platform.<https://www.reuters.com/breakingviews/jiang-zemin-made-china-richer-more-unequal-2022-11-30/> Accessed on 18th January, 2024.
- Richard Daniel Ewing. 2003. Hu Jintao: The Making of a Chinese Secretary General. <https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/15995942.pdf>
(The author Liu Shaojie, a postgraduate student from the Institute of African Studies of Zhejiang Normal University (Class 2022), exchange visiting scholar of University of Ibadan, focusing on African history, international relations, and China-Africa cooperation.)
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